Section 1: The sins commited by the New Testament churches and the truth in the spoken words of God

The Diocletianic Persecution: The Empire’s Most Intense Crackdown

The persecution of Christians reached its peak under Emperor Diocletian, who came to power in 284. While his early rule did not immediately target Christians, attitudes shifted sharply over time. Diocletian removed Christians from the army, condemned certain religious groups to death, and surrounded himself with officials opposed to Christianity. In 302, Galerius, his deputy, pushed for a general persecution. Although Diocletian was initially hesitant, a consultation with the oracle of Apollo gave the green light for widespread action in 303.

The edicts that followed demanded that Christians abandon their faith, perform sacrifices to Roman gods, and obey traditional religious laws. Failure to comply resulted in imprisonment, torture, and execution. These policies were enforced unevenly, however. Constantius, who ruled the western provinces, was notably reluctant to enforce the persecutions, allowing many Christians to avoid punishment in his territories.

Constantine and the End of Persecution

A major shift occurred with Constantine’s rise to power. After becoming emperor, Constantine, with the help of the Bishop of Rome, restored Christians to full legal status and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecutions. In 313, Constantine and his co-emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance across the empire, including full acceptance of Christianity.

This marked the end of systematic persecution and began Christianity’s rise as the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine’s favor towards Christianity led to significant changes, both in church organization and its relationship with the imperial government.

The Lasting Impact of Persecution on Christian Communities

Despite the end of formal persecution, the experience left lasting divisions within Christian communities. Some Christians, known as lapsi, had renounced their faith under pressure, while others had held firm. This division led to schisms like the Donatists in North Africa, who refused to accept those who had lapsed back into the church.

The cult of the martyrs also became central to Christian identity, with stories of their suffering sometimes exaggerated for emphasis. These accounts were later critiqued by historians such as Edward Gibbon, who questioned their accuracy and suggested that the severity of persecution had been overstated.

Voluntary Martyrdom and Church Responses

Interestingly, some early Christians actively sought martyrdom, seeing it as the highest form of faith witness. This caused tension within the church. Authorities eventually condemned “voluntary martyrdom,” emphasizing that true martyrdom should come only from persecution imposed by external forces, not self-initiated acts.

Christianity’s Growth Despite Persecution

Though the persecutions were brutal for many, the majority of Christians avoided punishment. Over time, Christianity not only survived but grew, becoming a major social and religious force by the mid-4th century. The memory of persecution helped shape the church’s identity and its understanding of faithfulness under pressure.

Eusebius and the Martyrs of Palestine

During the Great Persecution, Eusebius was the bishop of Caesarea Maritima, the capital of Roman Palestine. Under Roman law, capital punishment could only be enforced by provincial governors, who usually resided in the capital. Because of this, most martyrdoms occurred within Eusebius’ jurisdiction. When governors traveled to other cities to hold assizes (legal sessions), their activities—and the persecutions carried out—were publicized throughout the province. This meant that if Eusebius was a diligent reporter, he could have kept a near-complete record of all martyrs in his province.

Edward Gibbon, noting the vague phrasing in Eusebius’ writings, was the first to estimate the number of martyrs. He did this by counting the total number listed by Eusebius, dividing by the years covered, multiplying by the fraction of the Roman world represented by Palestine, and then scaling up for the entire persecution period. Later estimates have generally followed this method.

The purpose of Eusebius’ work, Martyrs of Palestine, has been debated. Geoffrey de Ste Croix argued that Eusebius aimed to give a full account of the martyrs in his province. Supporting this, Eusebius writes after describing martyrdoms in Caesarea and Phaeno that these accounts represent the entire persecution in Palestine.

However, Timothy Barnes offers a narrower interpretation. He points out that Eusebius titled his work “About those who suffered martyrdom in Palestine” and intended to preserve the memory of martyrs he personally knew, rather than provide a comprehensive province-wide account. Eusebius himself says in the preface:

“It is meet, then, that the conflicts which were illustrious in various districts should be committed to writing by those who dwelt with the combatants in their districts. But for me, I pray that I may be able to speak of those with whom I was personally conversant and that they may associate me with them—those in whom the whole people of Palestine glories because even in the midst of our land the Savior of all men arose like a thirst-quenching spring. The contests, then, of those illustrious champions I shall relate for the general instruction and profit.”
—Martyrs of Palestine (long recension), Preface 8, translated by Graeme Clark

Characteristics and History of the Roman Empire

The culture of ancient Rome spanned roughly a thousand years. It evolved from a small agricultural community with a narrow ethnic identity into a vast, multilingual, and multicultural empire covering areas now part of 13 modern nations.

Rome’s origins are humble, rising from within the land that is now Italy—hence it remains the geographic capital of Italy today.

The Roman Empire emerged after Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC. The ensuing years of civil war ended in 27 BC when Augustus became Caesar’s successor and the first Roman emperor. Augustus’ long reign (63 BC–14 AD) marked the start of the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace. Although powerful and a skilled reformer, Augustus faced setbacks, such as the defeat of a Roman force by Germans at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD.

One defining feature of the empire was its vastness: it stretched from Scotland to the Arabian Desert and from Morocco to the Black Sea, with the Mediterranean Sea effectively becoming a Roman lake. The empire’s size meant Augustus chose not to expand further.

The empire was held together by an extensive road network and a military-run postal system. Commerce and industry thrived, and Roman literature and art, heavily influenced by Greek culture, flourished.

After the Pax Romana, the empire declined. The rise of Christianity created tensions. Some later emperors, like Commodus, were cruel and ineffective. Barbarian tribes increasingly pressured the empire’s borders. Ultimately, Rome fell in 476 AD.

Religious and Symbolic Aspects of Rome

Rome is famously known as the “City of Seven Hills.” This is seen as a counterfeit or imitation of Jerusalem, which also stood on seven hills:

Jerusalem’s Seven Hills:

1. Mount Scopus

2. Mount Olivet

3. Mount of Corruption

4. Mount Ophel

5. Mount Zion

6. Middle Summit Hill (Nob Hill Two)

7. Hill north of the Antonia Fortress

Rome’s Seven Hills:

1. Aventine

2. Caelian

3. Capitoline

4. Esquiline

5. Palatine

6. Quirinal

7. Viminal

This symbolic parallel plays a role in biblical interpretations, where Rome’s identity is often contrasted with Jerusalem’s spiritual significance.

Rome and the Papacy

In 538 AD, Emperor Justinian elevated the Pope to be the head of all churches, granting the papacy great power. This moment is seen as Rome giving authority to the beast figure described in biblical prophecy.

Rome suffered a “deadly wound” with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. The division of the empire into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires is symbolized in Daniel chapter 2 by the two legs of the statue with a head of gold. Though both empires were eventually defeated, they were not completely destroyed.

The revival of these empires, now known as Europe, has not yet reached its full power, but biblical prophecy suggests it will.

The “ten toes” of the statue represent a weakened Roman Empire, likened to a mixture of iron and clay, indicating internal fragility.

Additional Notes and Reflections

• Roman emperors persecuted Christians at various points.

• The Italian painter Giotto di Bondone (1267–1377) described Rome as “the city of echoes, the city of illusions, and the city of yearning.”

• Passages from Revelation (chapter 13) describe the beast and its power, which is often interpreted as symbolizing Rome and its religious-political authority.